China Travel—The History of Tibet

Also known as: Bod, Gangs-ljongs, Hsi-tsang Tzu-chih-ch’ü, Kha-ba-can, Thibet, Thubet, Tibet Autonomous Region, Tubbat, Tufan, Xizang Zizhiqu.

Tibet, a historical region and autonomous region of China, is often referred to as the “Roof of the World.” It encompasses the vast plateau and mountain regions of Central Asia, including Mount Everest (Qomolangma [or Zhumulangma] Feng; Tibetan: Chomolungma). It borders Qinghai Province to the northeast, Sichuan Province to the east, and Yunnan Province to the southeast. To the south, it shares borders with Myanmar, India, Bhutan, and Nepal; to the west, it borders the disputed Kashmir region; and to the northwest, it is adjacent to the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. Lhasa is the capital. The name Tibet derives from the Mongolian Thubet, Chinese Tufan, Dai Thibet, and Arabic Tubbat.

Before the 1950s, Tibet was largely isolated from the outside world. Tibet was a unique cultural and religious community, characterized by the Tibetan language and Tibetan Buddhism. The region made little effort to foster external relations, and economic development was minimal.

The Chinese view Tibet as having been a legitimate part of China for centuries, claiming they liberated Tibet from an oppressive regime under which much of the population lived in serfdom. Both perspectives have merit, although public opinion outside of China (especially in the West) tends to see Tibet as an independent (or at least highly autonomous) entity. Nonetheless, there is no doubt that the 14th Dalai Lama, the spiritual and temporal leader of Tibet in exile, has become one of the most recognized and respected figures in the world. The area of Tibet is 471,700 square miles (1,221,600 square kilometers). The population (as of 2020) is 3,648,100.

Land Relief

Tibet is situated on a plateau—the Tibetan Plateau—surrounded by massive mountain ranges. The relatively flat northern part of the plateau is known as the Changtang, which stretches over 800 miles (1,300 km) from west to east, with an average elevation of 16,500 feet (5,000 meters). The Changtang is dotted with saltwater lakes, the largest of which are Siling Lake and Nam Co. However, there are no river systems in this area. The elevation of the Changtang begins to decrease toward the east. In southeastern Tibet, mountain ranges run from north to south across the land, forming meridional barriers that hinder travel and communication. In central and western Tibet, mountain ranges extend from the northwest to the southeast, with deep and shallow valleys forming numerous ravines.

The Changtang borders the Kunlun Mountains to the north, with its highest peak, Muztagh (located on the Tibet-Xinjiang border), reaching an elevation of 25,338 feet (7,723 meters). The western and southern boundaries of the Tibetan Plateau are marked by the towering Himalayas; the highest peak is Mount Everest, situated on the border between Tibet and Nepal, with an elevation of 29,035 feet (8,850 meters; see Researcher’s Note: Height of Mount Everest). North of Lake Mapam Yumco, the Gangdise Range extends eastward, featuring clusters of peaks, several of which exceed 20,000 feet (6,100 meters) in height. Between this range and the Himalayas lies the Brahmaputra River (known in Tibet as the Yarlung Zangbo or Yarlung Tsangpo), which flows through southern Tibet and cuts southward through the mountains into India and Bangladesh.

Drainage and Soils

The Tibetan Plateau is the primary source of rivers for East Asia, Southeast Asia, and South Asia. The Indus River, known in Tibet as the Sengge Zangbo (“Lion’s Spring”; Chinese: Shiquan He), originates from Mount Kailash in western Tibet, a sacred mountain for Buddhists and Hindus. The river then flows westward through the Kashmir region into Pakistan. Three other rivers also originate in the west: the Langqên Kanbab (Tibetan: “Elephant Spring”) flows westward and becomes the Sutlej River in northwestern India and eastern Pakistan; the Mabja Zangbo flows into the Ghaghara River (Nepali: Kauriala), eventually merging with the Ganges (Ganga); the Damqog Kanbab (“Horse Spring”) flows eastward, joining the Lhasa River to form the Yarlung Zangbo (Brahmaputra River) south of Lhasa.

The Salween River (Nu River) originates in central-eastern Tibet, flows through eastern Tibet and Yunnan, and then into Myanmar. The Mekong River originates in southern Qinghai Province, formed by two streams that converge near the Tibetan border; the river then flows through eastern Tibet and western Yunnan into Laos and Thailand. The Yangtze River originates in southern Qinghai, near the Tibetan border; after flowing through southern Qinghai, it turns southward, forming much of the boundary between Tibet and Sichuan.

Tibet’s three largest lakes are located northwest of Lhasa: Tangra Yumco (Tibetan: Tangra Yumco) to the south, and Siling. South of Lhasa are two other large lakes, Yamzho Yumco (Yangzho Yong) and Puma Yumco (Pumo). In western Tibet, near the Nepal border, there are two adjacent lakes—Puma Yumco and Lake Manasarovar, both of which are sacred to Buddhists and Hindus.

The soils are alluvial, typically composed of wind-blown sand, forming a layer over gravel and pebbles. Depending on the humus content, the soil color varies from light brown to gray, with generally low humus content.

Climate of Tibet

Although Tibetans refer to their land as Gangs-ljongs or Kha-ba-can (“Land of Snow”), the climate is generally dry. Most of Tibet receives only 18 inches (460 mm) of annual precipitation (including rain and snow), with the majority occurring during the summer. The Himalayas block the monsoons from the south that bring rain, resulting in decreasing precipitation from south to north. The permanent snowline on the Himalayas is around 16,000 feet (4,800 meters), but it rises to about 20,000 feet (6,100 meters) in the northern mountain ranges. Humidity is low, and fog is almost nonexistent.

Higher altitudes experience cold temperatures, while the valleys and southeastern regions are mild and pleasant. Seasonal changes are minimal, with the most significant temperature variations occurring within a single day (i.e., within 24 hours). Lhasa, at an elevation of 11,975 feet (3,650 meters), experiences daily high temperatures of up to 85 °F (30 °C) and lows of −2 °F (−19 °C). The frigid temperatures in the early morning and at night, combined with the strong winds that blow through the city for most of the year, intensify the cold. Due to the cool, dry air, grains can be safely stored for 50 to 60 years, dried meat and butter can be preserved for over a year, and epidemics are rare.

Animals and Plants

The windswept Changtang region has no trees or large vegetation. Its arid climate supports little life besides grass, which covers two-thirds of Tibet’s total area. Despite this, Tibet boasts a diverse array of plant species, with over 6,400 varieties, more than 1,000 of which have economic value. These are primarily found in the valleys and the moist lowlands of the southern and southeastern regions. Common plants include willows, poplars, various conifers, teak, rhododendrons, oaks, birches, elms, bamboo, sugarcane, acacias, thorn trees, tea trees, gro-ba (a small white tree mainly found in hilly areas), ‘om-bu (a shrub-like tree that grows near water, bearing red flowers), khres-pa (a durable forest tree used for making food containers), glang-ma (a willow tree used for basket weaving), and rtsi-shing (whose seeds are used to make varnish). Fruit-bearing trees and certain roots can be used as food, while the leaves of lca-wa, khumag, and sre-ral, all of which grow in low, damp areas, are also edible. Tibet is home to a rich variety of wild and domesticated flowers. Wildflowers include blue poppies, lotuses, wild pansies, oleanders, orchids, tsi-tog (a pale pink flower found at high altitudes), 香树 (a bell-shaped flower, white, yellow, or chestnut in color, also found at high altitudes), and ogchu (a red flower that grows in sandy areas).

Tibet is home to over 100 species of mammals, 40 species of reptiles, and more than 50 species of amphibians. Mammals in forested areas include tigers, leopards, bears, wild boars, wild goats, martens (a type of cat), langurs (long-tailed monkeys), lynxes, wild dogs, wild water buffalo, pha-ra (a small member of the canine family), and gsa (a spotted feline smaller than a leopard). In the high grasslands and arid shrublands, you can find brown bears, wild sheep and bighorn sheep, antelopes, musk deer, wild donkeys, wild yaks, snakes, scorpions, lizards, and dre-tse (a canine species). Aquatic life includes various fish, frogs, crabs, otters, and turtles.

Approximately 400 species of birds in Tibet soar through the skies, undisturbed by planes or hunters. The variety of birds is impressive, with notable species including the black-necked crane (Grus nigricollis), the Himalayan monal (Lophophorus impejanus), jungle fowl, ptarmigans, partridges, mynas, eagles, and hoopoes. Other birds include seagulls, ruddy shelducks, cinnamon teals, sing-bya (a small bird similar to an owl), khra (a bird about the size of a crow, resembling an eagle), yar-lung (a duck-sized bird), and skya-ka (a black-and-white bird about the size of a crow). The appearance of rmos-‘debs, a small gray bird that inhabits agricultural areas, marks the beginning of the planting season.

People of Tibet
Demographics
The region’s population is predominantly Tibetan, with smaller numbers of Han Chinese, Hui, Monba, Lhoba, and other minority groups. Most of Tibet’s people belong to the same ethnic group, traditionally follow the same religion, and speak the same language.

The Tibetan language is related to Burmese, although in their modern forms, they are mutually unintelligible. Spoken Tibetan has developed into a pattern of mutually intelligible regional dialects and sub-dialects, with the Lhasa dialect serving as the lingua franca. The language has two social registers—zhäsa (honorific language) and phal-skad (ordinary language); their use depends on the relative social status of the speaker and the listener. Since the 1960s, the use of the Chinese language has become increasingly widespread in the region.

The Tibetan script is derived from the writing system of the Indian Gupta dynasty around 600 CE. The Tibetan syllabary consists of 30 consonants and 5 vowels, with 6 additional signs used when writing Sanskrit words. There are four variations of the Tibetan script—dbu-can (mainly used for Buddhist scriptures), dbu-med and ‘khyug-yig (used for general purposes), and ‘bru-tsha (used for ornamental writing).

Bön Religion

Bön is considered the first known religion in Tibet, although there is some debate about its exact origin. Bön is a shamanistic religion that includes beliefs in spirits, demons, and ancestral souls, which are believed to respond to priests or shamans. Over time, as both Buddhism and Bön absorbed certain rituals and concepts from each other, Buddhists incorporated some characteristics of Bön, leading to many similarities between the two religions.

While Buddhism was introduced to China in ancient times, its main teachings originated from India. The first Buddhist scriptures may have reached Tibet in the 3rd century CE, but Buddhism did not begin to spread actively until the 8th century. Over the subsequent centuries, various Buddhist sects emerged, including the Gelug school, which emphasizes monastic discipline. This school, also known as the “Yellow Hat” sect, gained political dominance in the 17th century and maintained this position until 1959.

The vast majority of Tibetans have traditionally been Buddhists. Before the 1950s, prayer flags were a common sight, adorning the hillsides across the region. Monasteries were built throughout the country, and the Dalai Lama was recognized as the spiritual leader of Tibetan Buddhism as well as the highest political leader of Tibet. However, there are also small communities of Muslims, Hindus, Bön practitioners, and Christians.

Settlement Patterns

Tibet has traditionally been divided into three regions known as Chol-kha-gsum (Chol-kha meaning “region,” and gsum meaning “three”). The region of Ü-Tsang extends from Mangkang on the Kashmir border to Sok Dzong near Sog County. Kham, also known as the region of multiple rivers, includes the area between Sola Khumbu and the upper reaches of the Yellow River, now located in Qinghai Province. Amdo, also known as the land of the horsemen, stretches from the Yellow River to the Muqu River in Gansu Province, encompassing much of what is now Qinghai. Traditionally, Tibetans believe that the best religion comes from Ü-Tsang, the best people come from Kham, and the best horses come from Amdo. In the Chol-kha-sum region, about one-third of the land is uninhabitable, about one-fifth is occupied by nomads, and the rest is home to semi-nomadic and agricultural communities, with a small portion of forested areas inhabited by hunters.

The main agricultural region is the Southern Tibetan Valley, which extends approximately 1,000 miles (1,600 kilometers) from the upper reaches of the Indus River in the west to the upper valley of the Yarlung Tsangpo River. Most of Tibet’s agriculture, livestock farming, and industry are concentrated in this valley, which includes major cities like Lhasa, Shigatse, and Gyantse.
Economy of Tibet
Resources and Power

Tibet is rich in mineral resources, yet its economy has remained underdeveloped. Exploration in the 1930s and 1940s in the Mount Kailash region of western Tibet uncovered extensive gold deposits and large borax deposits, along with reserves of radium, iron, titanium, lead, and arsenic. Subsequent exploration teams reported significant mineral and ore reserves throughout Tibet after the 1950s. Notable discoveries include large copper deposits east of Lhasa at Qulong and around Yulong near the Sichuan border, rich coal deposits around Ningjing and Chandu, high-quality, deep-minable iron ore deposits in the Tanggula Mountains along the Tibet-Qinghai border, as well as reserves of oil fields, oil shale, chrome ore, lithium, lead, zinc, and manganese.

Before 1950, Tibet had almost no electricity generation capacity, leading to substantial efforts to develop it. Several thermal power plants have been constructed, including plants in Lhasa and Shigatse. Tibet’s rushing rivers and mountain streams offer significant hydroelectric potential, contributing a large portion to China’s total hydroelectric resources. Significant efforts have been made to develop promising areas, particularly on the Yarlung Tsangpo River, Mekong River, Lhasa River, and Nianchu River. The first such project began in the 1950s, essentially restoring an early small hydroelectric station in Lhasa. Since then, numerous small and medium-sized hydroelectric stations have been built, including the Jinhe Power Station near Chandu on the upper Mekong River and the Zhikong Power Station on the Lhasa River, approximately 60 miles (100 kilometers) northeast of Lhasa.
In addition to thermal and hydroelectric power, geothermal, solar, and wind energy have substantial development potential. Yangbajing, located approximately 55 miles (90 kilometers) northwest of Lhasa, hosts a large geothermal power plant, one of the largest in China. Additionally, small power stations utilizing wind and solar energy have been established for local towns and villages.

Agriculture and Forestry

Major crops in Tibet include barley (especially varieties developed for high altitudes), wheat, corn, and legumes; other important crops are millet, buckwheat, rgya-bra (a grain similar to buckwheat), beans, hemp, and mustard. Butter made from the milk of yaks (large long-haired cattle) or mdzo-mo (a hybrid between yaks and cows) is a staple dairy product. The diet is supplemented with various horticultural vegetables. Some rice is grown in the southeastern region, but most must be imported, along with tea and sugar. The cultivation of fruits, vegetables, and flowers in greenhouse facilities has become increasingly important. Most farmers raise livestock such as yaks, horses, mules, donkeys, and goats, and obtain meat from cattle, sheep, pigs, and chickens.

The upper and middle reaches of the Yarlung Tsangpo River are the main forested areas in southwestern China, but forestry development has been slow due to transportation challenges. Forest residents primarily earn income from producing wooden products such as planks, beams, ink slabs, and kitchen utensils.

Manufacturing

Before the 1950s, Tibet had no modern industry. There were small craft centers, owned either individually or collectively, where artisans produced scroll paintings, metal images, woodblock prints, and religious icons. These craftsmen were required to be proficient in literature and mathematics. Additionally, there were carpet weavers, tanners, potters, goldsmiths, silversmiths, carpenters, tailors, and incense burner makers, all of whom learned their trades through apprenticeships. Tibetan art and craftsmanship were well-preserved due to government rewards, including titles, estates, and monetary incentives, for outstanding artists and craftsmen.

The first step toward industrial development began in 1952 with the establishment of an ironworks and a woodworking factory in Lhasa. This was followed by the opening of an auto repair shop in 1957 and a tannery in 1958. Modern industry began in the early 1980s, initially focusing on agricultural processing enterprises. Subsequently, development extended to metallurgy, machinery, textiles, chemicals, building materials, forestry products, and light industry. The production of pharmaceuticals based on Tibetan medicinal plants also became significant, and the production of traditional handicrafts (especially woolen goods, boots, blankets, and wooden bowls—products famous in China) was expanded.

Finance and Other Services

Before 1951, Tibet had no banks. People could only obtain small loans from local merchants, who charged interest, while the Tibetan government earned revenue through lending public funds and charging interest. Since then, especially from the 1980s onwards, banks have established branches in Tibet, expanding agricultural and commercial credit and offering currency exchange services for both domestic and foreign currencies.

Tibet is one of the world’s renowned tourist destinations, known for its mountaineering adventures, cultural and scientific explorations, and religious pilgrimages. Major cities like Lhasa have developed extensive tourism services, making tourism a pillar of Tibet’s economy. Notably, the Potala Palace in Lhasa, a historic architectural complex, was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1994. Other popular attractions include the Jokhang Temple and Norbulingka in Lhasa, the Tashilhunpo Monastery in Shigatse, and the Palkhor Monastery in Gyantse. Tibet is also a hub for mountaineering in the northern Himalayas, particularly for expeditions on the north face of Mount Everest. Another popular destination is the “Grand Canyon” of the Yarlung Tsangpo River in southeastern Tibet, which stretches nearly 300 miles (500 kilometers) and reaches depths of about 16,500 feet (5,000 meters) near Mount Namcha Barwa.

Transportation

Before 1951, travel in Tibet was limited to walking or using animal power. Small boats made of willow branches and animal hides were used to cross larger rivers. The Tibetan government hindered the development of modern transportation, making it difficult for outsiders to enter the region. For trade, Tibetans relied on ancient caravan routes to Lhasa, the most significant being those from Qinghai (via Nagqu) and Sichuan (via Chamdo), India (via Kalimpong in West Bengal and Yatung in Tibet), Nepal (via Sikkim and Nyalam), and Kashmir (via Leh and Gal).

Since the early 1950s, China has built a network of highways, particularly those connecting Tibet to Qinghai and Sichuan. Additionally, major highways linking Tibet with Xinjiang, Yunnan, and Nepal have been constructed. The main railway line from Xining (the capital of Qinghai Province) to Lhasa was opened in 2006.

In 1956, the first air route between Tibet and Beijing was established. Currently, airports in Lhasa, Chamdo, and Linzhi offer commercial air services. In 1904, the British set up the first telegraph line between Kalimpong (India) and Gyantse, which was extended to Lhasa in the 1920s; this was the only operational telegraph system before the Chinese liberation of Tibet in 1951. Postal and telecommunication stations (including mobile stations) serve remote border areas, as well as geological, hydrological, and construction teams. Radio and television stations have also been established.

Government and Society

Constitutional Framework

Before 1951, Tibet was governed by a theocratic system with the Dalai Lama serving as both the highest religious and secular leader. After that, the newly appointed Chinese administrative head relied on military control and gradually established civil regional autonomy. In 1965, Tibet was officially designated as an autonomous region, separating religion from governance. Tibet is now divided into the Lhasa municipality, which is directly governed by the Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR) government, and six prefectures, each with subordinate municipal districts, counties, and county-level cities.

The military is composed of regular Chinese troops commanded by the Chinese military commander stationed in Lhasa. Military posts are established in major towns along the borders with India, Nepal, and Bhutan. Some militia units also recruit local residents.

Health and Welfare

It is said that the pre-1951 Tibetan government had plans to provide medical aid to pregnant women, care for the elderly and disabled, and projects to build and maintain proper drainage systems, wells, and canals to improve sanitary conditions. China has rebutted these claims, noting that they have also been working to improve public health and welfare. Indeed, since the 1950s, Tibet has constructed modern hospitals, improved drainage systems, and deployed mobile medical units at key locations. Additionally, the average life expectancy in Tibet has significantly increased since 1950.

Education

Before Chinese rule, Tibet had several secular schools. Monasteries were the primary centers of learning, with some of the larger monasteries operating similarly to seminaries. Secular facilities were established in the 1950s, including government-run primary schools, community primary schools, and secondary technical and higher education institutions. Higher education institutions include Tibet University (established in 1951) and the Tibetan Medical College (established in 1989).

Cultural Life

Art

Tibet is renowned for its religious thangkas (scroll paintings), metal images, and woodblock prints. The images are categorized into three types, representing peaceful, gentle, and wrathful deities, while the paintings are divided into three schools: Shaman Tang, Gonggar Mankambri, and Khamas Gabri. These schools are distinguished by their tonal quality and the expressions depicted on the faces.

The rich and ancient culture is primarily based on religion. The “Cham” dance, performed by monks, is distinctive and reenacts the behaviors, attitudes, and postures of deities. Ancient legends, historical events, classical solo performances, and musical debates are carefully staged in open-air opera, operetta, and drama formats. Local folk dances and songs are vibrant, joyous, and rustic: the Bro from Kham, the Sgoza from the U-Tsang farmers, and the Kadra from Amdo are spectacular collective performances. During festivals, these performances can last for several days. They celebrate people’s love, their religious faith, the beauty of their land, and the heroic deeds of their ancestors.

Customs

Traditional Tibetan wedding ceremonies involve consulting lamas and astrologers to determine the suitability of a couple. After agreeing on a match, a formal ceremony is held at the groom’s home. There’s no need to visit a temple or attend civil authorities.

In modern times, it is increasingly common for couples to meet at public gatherings and then seek their families’ approval for marriage. Once officially married (typically at the groom’s home), prayer flags are hung on the bride’s family’s roof, and a wedding feast is held. Although polygamy was once practiced to a limited extent, monogamy is now the predominant custom.

Upon death, family members make charitable donations in the hope of ensuring a better reincarnation for the deceased. If the deceased is an important religious figure, their body may be preserved in a tomb or stupa (a Buddhist monument). Otherwise, traditional practice dictates that the body be offered to vultures in a sky burial. Water burials (placing the body in a river downstream) are also practiced in some regions. Earth burials and cremations still exist but are rare. Traditional Tibetan funeral customs are described in the “Bardo Thodol” (Tibetan Book of the Dead).

During greetings, temple visits, weddings, funerals, and other occasions, people present white khatas (ceremonial scarves). This tradition originates from ancient practices of offering khatas to deities and has evolved into a customary greeting, symbolizing pure white silk offerings. Another tradition involves hanging prayer flags on rooftops, tents, mountaintops, and any place where Tibetans gather. These flags symbolize wealth and good fortune. Tibetans also widely use prayer wheels (mani chos ‘khor), which are turned during prayers as a substitute for verbal recitations of mantras. Prayer wheels come in various sizes and types, with small handheld versions being the most common.

Diet

The staple food of Tibetans is tsampa (also known as tsampa), which is made from roasted barley flour dough and is a daily food. Other main dishes include baked goods made from wheat flour, yak meat, lamb, and pork. Dairy products such as butter, milk, and cheese are also popular. People living at high altitudes usually eat more meat compared to those at lower altitudes, where a variety of vegetables are available. Rice consumption is typically limited to wealthy families, southern border farmers, and monks.

Two notable beverages are tea and barley beer. Tibetan tea (also known as butter tea) is particularly noteworthy. It is made by boiling brick tea from other parts of China with local Tibetan tea leaves in soda water. The tea is then filtered and poured into a churn where salt and butter are added, and the mixture is churned. The resulting tea is light reddish-white with a thick layer of butter on top. Tibetan tea has a mildly intoxicating effect, with a thick, white texture and a sweet yet spicy flavor.

Festivals

Festivals in Tibet have both ethnic and local characteristics. Local festivals vary widely, while ethnic festivals, though fewer in number, reflect a spirit of unity and luxury.

The first day of the Tibetan lunar new year (in the Gregorian calendar, February or March) is celebrated throughout Tibet. In the early morning, people go to monasteries, temples, stupas (outdoor shrines), and family chapels to offer prayers before the statues and relics of deities and saints. Each household prepares a special fried cookie called kha-zas. Offerings are decorated with a real or artificial sheep’s head. Visitors receive a colorful container filled with barley flour and wheat grains, and another container filled with zongzi (sticky rice dumplings). Visitors pinch a handful and throw it into the air as an offering to the deities.

After the New Year celebrations, the Prayer Festival (Smom-lam) begins three days after the New Year and usually lasts for 15 days, though the length of the festival can vary by region. The festival marks the victory of the Buddha over six religious opponents through debate and miracles. Special prayers are performed every day during the festival. The Saga Dawa Festival, which celebrates the Buddha’s birth, enlightenment, and nirvana—all occurring on the 15th day of the fourth month of the Tibetan calendar—is marked by prayers, fasting, and charitable donations.

On October 25th each year, the anniversary of the death of Tsongkhapa, the founder of the Gelug school, is observed by lighting butter lamps on rooftops and windows to commemorate him. This festival is known as Enka Mekhod. The exorcism festival, held on the 29th day of the last month of the Tibetan calendar, involves bringing a bowl of flour soup and a bundle of burning straw into every room of the house to summon evil spirits. The soup and straw are then thrown onto the road far from the house and left to burn.

Superstitions

Superstitions are prevalent among Tibetans. Travelers might believe that encountering a funeral procession, a spring, or a passerby carrying a jug of water will bring good luck. If a vulture or an owl perches on a rooftop, it is believed that death or misfortune will soon visit the household. Snowfall during a wedding procession is thought to bring many misfortunes or difficulties to the newlyweds. Conversely, snow during a funeral is seen as a sign that there will be no more deaths in the family for a long time.

Tibetan History

Sites near Chamdo in eastern Tibet indicate that humans have inhabited the region for about 4,000 to 5,000 years. Tibetan legends suggest that Tibetans originated from a union between a monkey and a female demon. The Chinese Tang Dynasty annals (10th century AD) trace Tibetan origins to nomadic Qiang tribes around 200 BC, who lived on the vast grasslands of northwestern China. This region has been a meeting and blending place for multiple ethnic groups for centuries and can be considered the original homeland of the modern Tibetans. However, until at least the 7th century AD, they were still mingling with other ethnicities through conquest or alliances. Among these groups, two are particularly notable: one primarily resided in cultivated valleys, possibly originating from the Yellow River basin and related to early Chinese and Burmese peoples; the other mainly lived among northern nomads and the aristocracy of Lhasa, appearing to have connections with the Turkic peoples who had early nomadic lands further north. Additionally, there were influences from Dardic languages and Indian languages in the west, and the eastern Himalayan border had connections with tribes collectively known by Tibetans as the Mong.

From the 7th to the 9th centuries, the Tibetan kingdom was a major power in Central Asia. When this kingdom disintegrated, Tibetans only occasionally appeared as traders and raiders in the region from the 10th to the 13th centuries. Tibetan Buddhism was regarded by the Yuan Dynasty as a potential spiritual center for the Mongol-ruled factions. This religious significance only became practical in the 18th century when the Gelugpa, followers of Tibetan Buddhism, threatened Qing Dynasty authority in Mongolia. In the 19th century, Tibet became a buffer zone between Russian imperial expansion and Indian frontier defense policies.

Early History to the 9th Century

Reliable history begins in the late 6th century AD when Tibet was divided. A prince of the old dynasty and three disgruntled vassals conspired to support the neighboring Yar-lu lord, whose title was Srong-btsan-sgam-po. The title “Sgam-po” (meaning “Great Power”) became a title for all Tibetan kings (where “rgyal” means “king”; the meaning of “Sgam” is unclear but might refer to the divine qualities of the Yar-lu prince). Their new ruler, Namri Songtsen (c. 570-619 AD), rose from being a minor prince of a small valley to the ruler of a burgeoning military empire.

Namri Songtsen established rule over several Qiang tribes on the Chinese border and became a commander of 100,000 soldiers under the Sui Dynasty (581-618 AD). His son, Songtsen Gampo (c. 617–650 AD), forcibly introduced Tibet to the Tang Emperor Taizong (reigned 626–649 AD). To appease him, Taizong married a princess to Songtsen Gampo. Songtsen Gampo, known as the first Chos-rgyal (meaning “Religious King”), had a crucial influence on Tibetan culture, borrowing the Indian script and introducing writing, which allowed for the translation of religious texts. His empire expanded into Nepal, western Tibet, Tuyuhun, and other tribes along the Chinese border; he also invaded northern India.

In 670 AD, twenty years after Songtsen Gampo’s death, peace with China broke down, and Tibetan forces from Qinghai and Xinjiang kept the border in a state of war for two centuries. Tibetans allied with the Western Turks to challenge Chinese control over Central Asian trade routes.

The reign of Trisong Detsen (755-797 AD) marked the peak of Tibetan military success, including demanding tribute from China and briefly occupying its capital, Chang’an, in 763 AD. However, it is Trisong Detsen’s role as the second religious king and his association with Tibetan Buddhism that is remembered. Initially, he banned Buddhism, but this prohibition was lifted in 761 AD. At the age of 21 in 763 AD, he invited Buddhist teachers from India and China to Tibet, and around 779 AD, he established the great monastery of Samye, where Tibetans were trained as monks.

Buddhism signaled the end of the “Srong-btsan” era. The kings did not fully grasp that the spiritual authority of Buddhism could threaten their supernatural prestige, or that its philosophy might be incompatible with their own beliefs about personal survival. They patronized Buddhist foundations but continued to claim divine incarnation. The period of division from the 9th to the 14th centuries saw Buddhist traditions document succession disputes in the 9th century, though inconsistencies remain; contemporary Chinese history indicates that Tibet’s unity and power were undermined by competition among generals commanding border troops.

In the early 9th century, descendants of the old royal family moved to western Tibet and established successor kingdoms. By 889 AD, Tibet had become a settlement of independent lords. In 843 AD, during this period, Langdarma (reigned 841-846 AD) ordered the suppression of Buddhism, leading to over a century-long interruption in Tibetan Buddhist traditions.

Leaders and chieftains in eastern Tibet established their own territories. The recognized successors of the religious kings prospered during their westward migration and maintained contact with Indian Buddhist universities through Tibetan scholars, the most famous being the translator Rinchen Sangpo (d. 1055). In central Tibet, Buddhism faced decline. The notable Indian scholar Atisha’s journey in 1042 revived faith in central Tibet, and from then on, Buddhism’s influence expanded, permeating various aspects of Tibetan life.

Inspired by Atisha and other scholars who visited India, Tibetan religious figures formed small groups to elaborate on different aspects of doctrine. Atisha’s teachings became the foundation for the rigorous Kadampa school. Tibetan scholar Gonchok Gyaltsen founded Sakya Monastery in 1073, followed by a series of lamas who founded several monasteries, commonly referred to as the Bka’-brgyud-pa school.

Hermits like Milarepa (1040-1123) lived apart from material concerns; however, organized sects became prosperous with the support of local lords (often relatives of the founding lamas), each developing their own systems to maintain aristocratic family succession. In

1247, the Chinese Yuan Dynasty bestowed upon the Tibetan monk Sakya Pandita (1182-1251) a sacred mark of political authority. This mark, which symbolized divine favor, further empowered the Sakya school.

The rise of the “Four Schools of Tibetan Buddhism” resulted from centuries of developing political patronage. The next phase saw the consolidation of these schools under the Gelugpa sect (or the “Yellow Hats”), which established its dominance over the other schools.

Important Figures

• Songtsen Gampo: A king during the 7th century who played a crucial role in introducing Buddhism to Tibet and expanded Tibetan territory significantly.
• Trisong Detsen: A king in the 8th century known for his support of Buddhism, establishing the great monastery of Samye, and inviting Buddhist teachers to Tibet.
• Langdarma: A king in the 9th century who suppressed Buddhism, leading to a period of decline for the religion in Tibet.
• Rinchen Sangpo: A translator who played a key role in reviving Tibetan Buddhism in the 11th century.
• Atisha: An Indian scholar whose teachings greatly influenced the revival of Buddhism in central Tibet in the 11th century.
• Milarepa: A Tibetan hermit and poet-saint known for his ascetic practices and influence on Tibetan Buddhism.
• Sakya Pandita: A Tibetan scholar and lama who received political authority from the Yuan Dynasty in the 13th century.